[EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON TRAINING]
Author: [JOHANNA BRISCOE]
Technology, innovations, and testing is constantly helping to propel the sport world further and further. Science advancements and research are creating new elements in training and competitions that create faster runners, farther throwers, and stronger lifters. Internal influences, (such as VO₂ max, body composition, and muscle fiber types) and external influences (such as weather, alcohol, and sleep) affect training. Science has proven the benefit internal factors can play on competitive sports, but external factors have also been proven to create a beneficial edge or a detrimental effect in sports. The external influences on training that will be discussed here are weather, alcohol, and sleep.
Weather
Hot and cold environments both play a role in training. During hot weather, an athlete has to be careful about overheating, dehydration, cramps, and heat exhaustion. Exercising in hot weather increases body temperature, with smaller body types (usually female) creating and storing less heat compared to larger body types (usually male), which can negatively affect athletic performance if heat increases too much. On the other hand, with frigid temperatures comes the possibility of increased injuries (from cold muscles working hard), vasoconstriction (because the body is trying to retain heat), bronchospasm (from the constriction of air pathways from the continual cold air being breathed in), and hypothermia. Smaller body types can be more susceptible to colder temperatures than larger body types.
After years researching the physiology, muscle and neural adjustments, cardiovascular changes, and injury prevention, they were able to piece together a warm-up protocol to avoid heat stress labeled as R.A.M.P (Raise, Activate, Mobilize, and Potentiate). “Raise” is the idea of elevating body temperature and heart rate. For example, this can be accomplished by a simple jog. Endurance events require longer “raise” portions of the warm-up when compared to anaerobic events. “Activate” and “Mobilize” stimulates movement patterns completed in the competition, and this helps to reduce injury. This could be accomplished by dynamic drills such as skips, lunges, side shuffles, etc. “Potentiate” refers to neurally preparing the body, usually accomplished by high force and power output productions. For endurance athletes this might look like power sprints or strides prior to racing, or for a more anaerobic competition, this could include countermovement jumps or a semi-heavy lift. Usually repetitions in this stage of the warmup are 1-4. In cold or regular temperatures, it is recommended to engage in a full warm-up for half an hour, but that number should decrease depending on the heat to decrease core and muscle temperature prior to event.
Wind can also be factored in as an external influence, and is often used for sprinters as a training barrier either by running into it or mimicking it with a parachute. Wind tunnels have also been used to help develop “streamlined” apparel to lower wind resistance for runners (~1-6% less), cyclists, and swimmers. Lance Armstrong is also known to have spent many hours to find the perfect bike and posture for racing by using the information from wind tunnels. So while many see running on windy days as an annoyingly more difficult task, it can have its benefits for athletes.
Alcohol
Alcohol is the most consumed “drug-like” substance for athletes. With its presence often found with post-performance celebrations, it is important to understand its negative effects on athletic performance. Reaction time, neural and physical activation reductions, performance, hangovers and recovery are parts that can become negatively associated with alcohol. The effects of alcohol taken during recovery on muscle capacity was tested by a study by Massey University in New Zealand. Maximal quadricep contractions (300) were executed by healthy males (n = 11) on one leg, then an alcoholic drink of vodka and orange juice was created to the body specifications of the subject (1g/kg body weight ethanol), and then exercises were repeated. On a different day, the subjects performed the same routine, but with a different leg. Then after exercise during the recovery phase, they drank an isocaloric drink of orange juice (no alcohol added).
Measurements were taken using an isokinetic dynamometer (for force and velocity) and blood creatine kinase and muscle soreness were also measured before exercise, 36 hours after, and 60 hours after. Compared to pre-exercise results, both trials showed a reduction in performance at 36 and 60 hours. For the non-alcoholic consumption trial (orange juice only), isometric, concentric and eccentric contractions measured a decrease of 12%, 28%, and 19%. In the alcohol trials, the decreases were significantly greater, measuring at 34%, 40%, and 34% loss respectively. This study supported the theory that drinking after a hard effort will amplify post-exercise muscle weakness. If an athlete does not have to engage in activities for a couple days after performance, one could perhaps indulge in a beer or two, but if one were looking to accelerate recovery, a sports drink or water would be recommended for recovery instead (Barnes, Mündel, & Stannard, 2020).
Is there a better celebratory beverage that could actually benefit the athlete? With an increase of focus on health and athlete recovery, beer companies have begun experimenting with creating light alcoholic recovery beverages. A study in 2015 led the way with beginning to manipulate alcoholic drinks for post-exercise by decreasing alcohol content and increasing sodium electrolyte concentration. Regular beer (~5% ABV) can cause an exerciser to become dehydrated after drinking because of the increased urine output (much like coffee). This study played with the effects of lowering alcohol content to 2.3% ABV and adding sodium. Via a cycling session, participants (n = 12; male) lost ~2% of body mass (BM) and were given beer options to drink, and then over a couple weeks each participant rotated through the same session with a different post exercise drink choice.
Option one was a light alcoholic beer with 25 mmol/L sodium added [LightBeer+25]. Option two was also a light alcoholic beer, but with 50 mmol/L sodium added [LightBeer+50)]. Option three had a regular beer with no added sodium [MidBeer], and the last option was a regular beer with 25 mmol/L of sodium added [MidBeer+25]. Amount of urine, BM, and hormone levels were measured before and 4 hours after drink was taken. The results showed that LightBeer+50 significantly (p < .05) produced the least amount of urine output per subject, which left the subject more hydrated (Desbrow et al., 2015). With an increase of focus on health and athlete recovery, beer companies have begun producing light alcoholic recovery beverages, such as the brands Sufferfest, Lean Machine, BeerRun, and Fit beer.
Sleep
The proper amount of sleep has incredible restorative benefits for everyone, and especially athletes. During this time, the body is repairing its damaged muscles, acquiring energy for tomorrow, and resting the mind to prepare for the next hard effort. “The central nervous system controls every aspect of athletic performance, from firing the correct sequence of muscle contraction to reflexes and reaction, exact biomechanical movements to function of skills (Peacock et al., 2018). A study just published in June 2020 looked to determine if there was a link between poor sleep and cardiovascular disease. Subjects (n = 1630; diverse population) had their sleep tracked using blood tests, calcium stores, and wristwatch sleep trackers for a long period of time.
It was found that interrupted sleep, irregular sleep cycles, and sleep fragmentation increased chronic inflammation in almost every part of the body and bloodstream (Vallat et al., 2020). They also were able to show a link of these sleep patterns to greater plaque buildup, known as atherosclerosis. A disease of the arteries, atherosclerosis is stimulated by an increased response of white blood cells (inflammatory-associated) which can initiate cardiovascular disease. Therefore, increased sleep quality can decrease inflammation and chances of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease, which will keep an athlete healthy for training and performance.
As seen, many external factors can influence training. Besides weather, alcohol, and sleep, other external factors may include altitude, team environment, outside stresses, pollution, ground material, clothing, etc. If an external factor negatively affects performance, the athlete should find a way to conquer the issue or work around it. If the external factor positively affects performance, the athlete should harness and use it to their advantage to create the best possible performance outcome possible.
[REFERENCES]
Source 1: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5605167/
Racinais, S., Cocking, S., & Périard, J. D. (2017). SPORTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURE: FROM WARMING-UP TO HEATING-UP. Temperature (Austin, Tex.), 4(3), 227–257.
Source 2: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1440244009000036
Barnes, M., Mündel, T., & Stannard, S. ACUTE ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION AGGRAVATES THE DECLINE IN MUSCLE PERFORMANCE FOLLOWING STRENUOUS ECCENTRIC EXERCISE. Retrieved July 17, 2020
Source 3: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25588064/
Desbrow, B., Cecchin, D., Jones, A., Grant, G., Irwin, C., & Leveritt, M. (2015). MANIPULATIONS TO THE ALCOHOL AND SODIUM CONTENT OF BEER FOR POSTEXERCISE REHYDRATION. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism, 25(3), 262–270. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2014-0064
Source 4: https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000726
Vallat R, Shah VD, Redline S, Attia P, Walker MP (2020) BROKEN SLEEP PREDICTS HARDENED BLOOD VESSELS. PLoS Biol 18(6): e3000726.
Source 5: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6359324/
Peacock, C. A., Mena, M., Sanders, G. J., Silver, T. A., Kalman, D., & Antonio, J. (2018). SLEEP DATA, PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE, AND INJURIES IN PREPARATION FOR PROFESSIONAL MIXED MARTIAL ARTS. Sports (Basel, Switzerland)
